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From 1962-2005, the U.S. steel industry cut 400,000 employees. The decline had massive effects. For example, Pittsburgh (the former center of the U.S. steel industry) fell from 10^th to 52^nd largest city in the U.S. However, U.S. steel productivity grew: worker output increased 5-fold, and factory output increased by 38%. How? According to Duke economist Allan Collard-Wexler, new technology — the steel minimill — quickly replaced less efficient “vertically integrated” mills. During this time, domestic steel production returned to 1960s levels. Meaning: the drop in steel employment was not the result of globalization or the steel industry moving from the Midwest. Instead, jobs in steel were displaced by technology.